Notes from ED3192 Science Education for Primary School (James Cook University)
PROCESS SKILLS AND SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGIES
Science is both a body of knowledge (content) and a method of acquiring knowledge.
It involves process skills such as observing, communicating, classifying
and inferring. It also involves problem-solving skills (i.e. using inductive
and deductive logic and one's rational powers to solve problems). By studying
science and a variety of scientific methods, students can develop an attitude
of inquiry as well as a body of scientific knowledge if this knowledge is
properly scaffolded.
When students do inquiry-based science either working individually, in pairs or in groups, they are independently working at their own level, developing and refining their process skills and, at the same time, increasing their knowledge of science and their ability to think critically.
Process skills can be thought of as developmental. In early childhood we tend to focus on developing organisational skills. In middle and upper primary this moves on to developing more relational skills. In upper secondary school students taking senior science subjects are asked to engage in developing theoretical and applicational process skills. A quick Cook?s Tour can be found below.
ECE
At the early childhood level (K-3), process skills are mostly ORGANISATIONAL in character. These can be characterised as:
Observing:
Using the five senses, we can identify the characteristics of objects and their
interactions.
Communicating:
Objects are identified and events are described so that information can be
passed on. This skill allows us to learn from others and at a much faster
rate than would otherwise be possible.
Comparing:
Objects, things and events are examined in terms of similarities and differences.
By comparing the known to the unknown we gain knowledge about the unknown.
All measurements (weight, capacity, quantity, relative position, temperature,
voltage, etc.) are forms of comparing.
Organising:
By systematically compiling, classifying and ordering data we gain knowledge
of principles and ideas of consistency, such as the application of Newton's
laws of motion.
PRIMARY TO MIDDLE SCHOOL
At the next level of middle to upper primary and into middle school depending on students? backgrounds, the process skills are mainly RELATIONAL in character.
Relating:
Includes experimenting and is a process by which we weave concrete and abstract
ideas together to test or explain phenomena. Here, skills of inductive, deductive
and hypothetical reasoning are developed to a greater degree. As we attempt
to answer a question or solve a problem we can use various forms of methodology.
One suggested recipe for inquiry learning that helps students develop their relational skills has been characterised as:
a) Identify the problem
Specifically state what the investigator is attempting to find out.
b) Hypothesise
The investigator considers what is previously known about the problem and proposes
a solution or a number of solutions.
c) Experiment
An experiment or experimental sequence is designed to answer the question.
A control and adequate sample sizes should be used whenever applicable. A
control is an unaffected sample that is compared to the experimental samples.
Since variables can influence the results of an experiment, they should be
controlled. You can only test one variable at a time to determine its relative
effect, so if you are interested in a number of variables you have to test
them all independently. This is discussed in the syllabus support materials
under the title "A Fair Test".
d) Results
Clear and understandable presentation of data allows us to easily see the relative
effects of one or more variables. Results can be observable or measurable
quantities and can be presented in tabular or graphical form.
e)Conclusion
What was discovered when doing the experiment or activity? Is there sufficient
evidence from the results to answer the original question? Re-evaluate the
hypothesis. Was it correct in the first instance of does it need modification?
This thinking is often very important. You also have to be careful that students
do not "fudge" their results to get a "right" answer.
Hopefully if you have been emphasising the PROCESS OF INQUIRY as important,
and MAKING MISTAKES as important, they won't feel the need to do that.
(Remember: Thomas Edison made 10,000 light bulbs before he discovered the one we use today.)
The above methodology is only a recipe and NOT a prescription. IT IS NOT THE
ONLY WAY OF DOING SCIENCE AS I KEEP EMPHASISING. However, you will be familiar
with it because this is what is commonly taught in Year 8 science lessons
and it does give students a taste of a formal methodology. This recipe allows
teachers to formally track students? skills. However, once students are doing
okay with this you need to move on to more complex approaches such as those
suggested under Productive Pedagogies (see Education Queensland website for
more information).
SENIOR SECONDARY
Different process skills are developed at the middle to senior secondary level and are THEORETICAL and APPLICATIONAL in character.
Inferring
This ?higher-level? skill involves realizing ideas that are not directly observable.
We go beyond the concrete to recognize patterns. We synthesize, analyse,
theorize and offer predictive explanations to simple and complex phenomena.
(Now the catch to this is that very young children are skilled at inference. They have to be as we discussed. They don?t have enough knowledge to be deductive thinkers. So, what happens in high school is that older students are once again asked to think as if they were very young and this is called a ?higher level skill?. Weird. But that?s how it goes.)
Applying
We bring acquired knowledge and experience together to create, invent or put
information to use. This process of applying is necessary for technological
advancement and is the key to the knowledge explosion we are experiencing
now.
You will note how these processes have been arranged sequentially in western
science programs and each includes some elements of the prior process (i.e.
one cannot organize objects without making comparisons and one cannot make
comparisons without making observations ? this is why we focus so strongly
in ECE on making observations).
No attempt should be made to develop process skills that are beyond the developmental readiness of the students. However, this doesn't mean that your teaching will be ineffective. At the very least you are trying to move chilodren at any level from beginning to proficient at any skill. There will always be children who can and will be very different developmentally from their peers. Gifted children may reach all these skill levels before high school (and you will have to cope with them).
You will notice that in the lecture handout skills are not grouped into a hierarchy but are grouped according to processes. Skills can be developed at any level of education but as students move through school there is an expectation by curriculum designers that they will develop their skills to a higher degree. All this is fine except that good science teaching is sooooo patchy in north Queensland, you really need to consult with all your students before deciding at which level to begin further skills development. Some students will be miles ahead of where you expect them to be and others will be miles behind. (Sigh).
This is why ascertaining students skill levels is always the best place to start any process skills teaching.
SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESS SKILLS USING SCIENCE PROJECTS.
Look, I like science projects. They let children do their own thing in areas in which they are interested (always good for enhacing school engagement)and nicely fit in with an integrated approach to science teaching.
ECE (K-3) At this level, student projects should illustrate, report or model
a science concept or subject area.
Examples
A display of different pictures of reef fish with each one identified
Diorama depicting a dinosaur's life
Creating a terrarium
A poster on "Trees in my neighborhood" or "What we found at
the beach" with each object identified according to a classification system.
Demonstrations of scientific/technological principle such as "How bikes
work"
Simple experiment such as "Effects of light/gravity and water on bean
growth"
PRIMARY SCHOOL
At the intermediate level, a science project for most students could be an affirmation of a known principle in different contexts.
Examples
"
How a motor works"
"
Which metal conducts heat best?"
"
Which metals are magnets?"
"
Who can roll their tongue and why?"
MIDDLE SCHOOL
At middle school level have students set up experimental projects to test out ideas and concepts.
A written report should accompany the project and students should be able to explain their project in an oral presentation.
If you need help in thinking up attractive ideas, go to Bunsen Bob's website for science projects. Bunsen Bob can be found in External Links.